Philosophical Progress

Articles and blog posts found on 27 April 2025

2025-04-27T23:59:00Z

Caitlin Mace: Function Ascription Practices in Circuit Interventions (pdf, 5435 words)

Novel tools have allowed researchers to intervene into circuits at the mesoscale. The results of these interventions are often explained by appeal to functions. How are functions ascribed to circuit parts experimentally? I identify two kinds of function ascription practices in circuit interventions. Analysis of these practices shows us that function ascriptions are challenging due to a lack of interventive control and insufficient constraints on the class of candidate functions to discriminate in practice. One kind of function ascription practice— subtractive analysis—fares better at addressing these challenges.

David Shoemaker: Quarrels and Cracks: On the Values of Comic Distraction (pdf, 10995 words)

Quarrels and wisecracks are essential features of interpersonal life. Quarrels are conflicts that typically take place only between friends, family, and those with whom we are personally engaged and whose attitudes toward us matter. Wisecracks are bits of improvised wit—banter, teasing, mockery, and ball busting—that also typically take place only in interpersonal life (note the following odd but revealing comment: “I can’t tease her like that; I barely even know her!”). Quarrels and cracks are, though, mutually exclusive. People know their quarrel is basically over once they start being amused by each others’ wisecracks again, and if you’re enjoying wisecracks with each other, it’s very hard, if not impossible, to quarrel at the same time. Why is this and what does it mean for interpersonal conflict? In this paper, I attempt to answer this question via a deep dive into the nature of wisecracking humor to explore the unrecognized—and valuable—role it plays in our interpersonal lives. In particular, there is a type of wisecracking humor that has a distinctive sort of interpersonal power, the power to dissolve the anger in quarrels in a surprising and productive way.

Alexander Pruss's Blog: Some issues concerning eliminative structuralism for second-order arithmetic (html, 503 words)

Eliminative structuralist philosophers of mathematics insist that what mathematicians study is structures rather than specific realizations of these structures, like a privileged natural number system would be. …

Mostly Aesthetics: Anne Bradstreet: An Appreciation (html, 635 words)

Anne Bradstreet was born in England, and raised near Old England’s Boston. In 1630, when she was eighteen, her family crossed the Atlantic on the Arbella, and helped John Winthrop found Puritan New England. …

D. G. Mayo's blog: Error statistics doesn’t blame for possible future crimes of QRPs (i) (html, 1324 words)

A seminal controversy in statistical inference is whether error probabilities associated with an inference method are evidentially relevant once the data are in hand. Frequentist error statisticians say yes; Bayesians say no. …

More to Hate: Don’t Have Children (html, 1765 words)

This post is free to read, so please ‘like’ it via the heart below and share it widely. The best way to support my work is with a paid subscription. It’s the most predictable thing imaginable: the Trump administration, co-helmed by the rabid pro-natalist Elon Musk and the sadsack pallbearer of patriarchy, J.D. …

Articles and blog posts found on 25 April 2025

2025-04-25T23:59:00Z

Deivide Garcia da Silva Oliveira: An alternative View for Scientific Models Based on Metaphors: a case analysis from Darwin's use of metaphors (pdf, 13169 words)

This paper aims to offer an alternative account for understanding scientific models based on metaphors. To accomplish this, we analyze Darwin’s use of metaphors, such as the notion of powerful Being and Struggle for Existence, in order to represent part of the process taking place in natural selection. The proposal emerges from two provocative issues. First, that the use of metaphors in philosophical and scientific literature is a form of approach that together with other “linguistic tropes in science dies hard” (Bailer-Jones 2002a; Keller 2002, p.117). Second, there are still unsolved problems in the literature of scientific models and debates using metaphors in science as the main epistemological approach.

Jack Shardlow, Ruth Lee, Patrick A. O’Connor, Christoph Hoerl, Teresa McCormack: Discounting past experience and the utility of memory: an empirical study (pdf, 15708 words)

It has been argued that adult humans are absolutely time biased towards the future, at least as far as purely hedonic experiences (pain/pleasure) are concerned. What this means is that they assign zero value to them once they are in the past. Recent empirical studies have cast doubt on this claim, suggesting that while adults hold asymmetrical hedonic preferences – preferring painful experiences to be in the past and pleasurable experiences to lie in the future – these preferences are not absolute and are often abandoned when the quantity of pain or pleasure under consideration is greater in the past than in the future. Research has also examined whether such preferences might be affected by the utility people assign to experiential memories, since the recollection of past events can itself be pleasurable or aversive. We extend this line of research, investigating the utility people assign to experiential memories regardless of tense, and provide – to our knowledge – the first quantitative attempt at directly comparing the relative subjective weightings given to ‘primary’ experiences (i.e., living through the event first-hand) and ‘secondary’ (i.e., recollective or anticipatory) experiences. We find that when painful events are located in the past, the importance of the memory of the pain appears to be enhanced relative to its importance when they are located in the future. We also find extensive individual differences in hedonic preferences, reasons to adopt them, and willingness to trade them off. This research allows for a clearer picture of the utility people assign to the consumption of recollective experiences and of how this contributes to, or perhaps masks, time biases.

Jonathan Y. Tsou: Hacking on Looping Effects and Kinds of People (pdf, 9089 words)

This paper critically examines Ian Hacking’s account of looping effects and human kinds, focusing on three related arguments defended by Hacking: (1) the looping effects of human science classifications render their objects of classification inherently unstable, (2) looping effects preclude the possibility of generating stable projectable inferences (i.e., reliable predictions) based on human kind terms, and (3) looping effects can demarcate human science classifications from natural science classifications. Contra-Hacking, I argue that: (1) some objects of human science classifications (viz., biological kinds) remain stable despite the feedback generated by their classifications, (2), human science classifications that individuate biological kinds yield stable projectable inferences, and (3) looping effects are a problematic criterion for distinguishing human science classifications from natural science classifications.

Niccolo Negro, Liad Mudrik: Testing for consciousness beyond consensus cases (pdf, 9786 words)

This chapter addresses the development of tests for consciousness (C-tests), defined as any protocol or methodology devised to detect specific properties that, if present, would justify higher credence in the belief that the system under test is phenomenally conscious. Though inherently defeasible, C-tests are vital for reducing epistemic uncertainty, balancing ethical and practical considerations regarding the attribution of consciousness to systems like patients with disorders of consciousness, non-human animals, and artificial systems. In this chapter, we first present a taxonomy of current available C-tests, describing how they rely on specific neural and/or psychological properties to reduce uncertainty about the presence of consciousness in various target systems. Second, we clarify the notion of phenomenal consciousness as the target of C-tests, delineating the limits of C- tests in being able to capture it. Third, we address the question of whether a well-established theory of consciousness and/or pre-theoretical intuitions are necessary for validation of C-tests. Fourth, we evaluate several inferential strategies to justify extrapolations of consciousness from consensus to non-consensus cases. Finally, we conclude by describing the iterative natural kind approach as a multidimensional method that integrates multiple tests with weighted evidence. This model would provide probabilistic assessments of consciousness across different populations, offering a more reliable framework for addressing non-consensus cases and providing a valuable aid for practical decision-making.

Shan Gao: Comment on "Aharonov-Bohm Phase is Locally Generated Like All Other Quantum Phases" (pdf, 2867 words)

Marletto and Vedral [Phys. Rev. Lett. 125, 040401 (2020)] propose that the Aharonov-Bohm (AB) phase is locally mediated by entanglement between a charged particle and the quantized electromagnetic field, asserting gauge independence for non-closed paths. Using quantum electrodynamics (QED), we critically analyze their model and demonstrate that the AB phase arises from the interaction with the vector potential A, not from entanglement, which is merely a byproduct of the QED framework. We show that their field-based energy formulation, intended to reflect local electromagnetic interactions, is mathematically flawed due to an incorrect prefactor and involves fields inside the solenoid, failing to support local mediation of the phase. Its equivalence to qv · A holds only in the Coulomb gauge, undermining their claim of a gauge-independent local mechanism. Furthermore, we confirm that the AB phase is gauge-dependent for non-closed paths, contradicting their assertion. Our analysis reaffirms the semi-classical interpretation, where the AB phase is driven by the vector potential A, with entanglement playing no causal role in its generation.

Silvester Borsboom, Sebastian De Haro: Global Gauge Symmetry Breaking in the Abelian Higgs Mechanism (pdf, 17405 words)

This paper aims to resolve the incompatibility between two extant gauge-invariant accounts of the Abelian Higgs mechanism: the first account uses global gauge symmetry breaking, and the second eliminates spontaneous symmetry breaking entirely. We resolve this incompatibility by using the constrained Hamiltonian formalism in symplectic geometry. First we argue that, unlike their local counterparts, global gauge symmetries are physical. The symmetries that are spontaneously broken by the Higgs mechanism are then the global ones. Second, we explain how the dressing field method singles out the Coulomb gauge as a preferred gauge for a gauge-invariant account of the Abelian Higgs mechanism. Based on the existence of this group of global gauge symmetries that are physical, we resolve the incompatibility between the two accounts by arguing that the correct way to carry out the second method is to eliminate only the redundant gauge symmetries, i.e. those local gauge symmetries which are not global. We extend our analysis to quantum field theory, where we show that the Abelian Higgs mechanism can be understood as spontaneous global U(1) symmetry breaking in the C -algebraic sense.

Silvia De Bianchi, Salvatore Capozziello, Emmanuele Battista: Atemporality from Conservation Laws of Physics in Lorentzian-Euclidean Black Holes (pdf, 6136 words)

Recent results have shown that singularities can be avoided from the general relativistic standpoint in Lorentzian-Euclidean black holes by means of the transition from a Lorentzian to an Euclidean region where time loses its physical meaning and becomes imaginary. This dynamical mechanism, dubbed “atemporality”, prevents the emergence of black hole singularities and the violation of conservation laws. In this paper, the notion of atemporality together with a detailed discussion of its implications is presented from a philosophical perspective. The main result consists in showing that atemporality is naturally related to conservation laws.

Xing M. Wang: Quantum Measurement Without Collapse or Many Worlds: The Branched Hilbert Subspace Interpretation (pdf, 4838 words)

The interpretation of quantum measurements presents a fundamental challenge in quantum mechanics, with concepts such as the Copenhagen Interpretation (CI), Many-Worlds Interpretation (MWI), and Bohmian Mechanics (BM) offering distinct perspectives. We propose the Branched Hilbert Subspace Interpretation (BHSI), which describes measurement as branching the local Hilbert space of a system into parallel subspaces. We formalize the mathematical framework of BHSI using branching and the engaging and disengaging unitary operators to relationally and causally update the states of observers. Unlike the MWI, BHSI avoids the ontological proliferation of worlds and copies of observers, realizing the Born rule based on branch weights. Unlike the CI, BHSI retains the essential features of the MWI: unitary evolution and no wavefunction collapse. Unlike the BM, BHSI does not depend on a nonlocal structure, which may conflict with relativity. We apply BHSI to examples such as the double-slit experiment, the Bell test, Wigner and his friend, and the black hole information paradox. In addition, we explore whether recohering branches can be achieved in BHSI. Compared to the CI and MWI, BHSI provides a minimalist, unitarity-preserving, collapse-free, and probabilistically inherent alternative interpretation of quantum measurements.

Yucheng Lu: On Dicing With Death: Defending Causal Decision Theory Against Uncanny Correlation (pdf, 7823 words)

This dissertation defends Causal Decision Theory(CDT) against a recent (alleged) counterexample. In Dicing with Death (2014), Arif Ahmed devises a decision scenario where the recommendation given by CDT apparently contradicts our intuitive course of action. Similar to many other alleged counterexamples to CDT, Ahmed’s story features an adversary with fantastic predictive power—Death himself, in this story. Unlike many other alleged counterexamples, however, Ahmed explicitly includes the use of a costly randomization device as a possible action for the agent. I critically assess these two features of Ahmed’s story. I argue that Death’s fantastic predictive power cannot be readily reconciled with the use of randomization device. In order to sustain Dicing with Death as a coherent decision scenario, background explanations must be given about the nature of Death’s fantastic predictive power. After considering a few such explanations, however, it becomes unclear if the initial intuition which CDT apparently contradicts still holds up. Finally, I consider two contrasting decision scenarios to illustrate why Ahmed’s intuition in this case is ultimately false. I conclude that biting the bullet can perhaps be a legitimate response from CDT to many similar cases where evidentially correlated but causally isolated acts seem to force CDT to give counterintuitive recommendations.

Yunjie Ellen Shi: Einstein Algebras and Relationalism Reconsidered (pdf, 12069 words)

This paper reconsiders the metaphysical implication of Einstein algebras, prompted by the recent objections of Chen (2024) on Rosenstock et al. (2015)’s conclusion. Rosenstock et al.’s duality theorem of smooth manifolds and smooth algebras supports a conventional wisdom which states that the Einstein algebra formalism is not more “relationalist” than the standard manifold formalism. Nevertheless, as Chen points out, smooth algebras are different from the relevant algebraic structure of an Einstein algebra. It is therefore questionable if Rosenstock et al.’s duality theorem can support the conventional wisdom. After a re-visit of John Earman’s classic works on the program of Leibniz algebras, I formalize the program in category theory and propose a new formal criterion to determine whether an algebraic formalism is more “relationalist” than the standard manifold formalism or not. Based on the new formal criterion, I show that the conventional wisdom is still true, though supported by a new technical result. I also show that Rosenstock et al. (2015)’s insight can be re-casted as a corollary of the new result. Finally, I provide a justification of the new formal criterion with a discussion of Sikorski algebras and differential spaces. The paper therefore provides a new perspective for formally investigating the metaphysical implication of an algebraic formalism for the theory of space and time.

Articles and blog posts found on 24 April 2025

2025-04-24T23:59:00Z

Klaas Kraay: Divine Freedom (html, 14930 words)

[Editor’s Note: The following new entry by Klaas Kraay replaces the former entry on this topic by the previous author.] The topic of divine freedom concerns the extent to which a divine being — in particular, the supreme divine being, God — can be free. There are, of course, many different conceptions of who or what God is. This entry will focus on one enormously important and influential model, according to which God is a personal being who exists necessarily, who is essentially omnipotent, omniscient, perfectly good, and perfectly rational, and who is the creator and sustainer of all that contingently exists.^{[ 1 ]} (For more discussion of these attributes, see the entries on omnipotence, omniscience, perfect goodness, and creation and conservation.)

Reuben Stern Benjamin Eva: Causal Direction in Causal Bayes Nets (pdf, 5665 words)

Some authors maintain that we can use causal Bayes nets to infer whether X → Y or X ← Y by consulting a probability distribution defined over some exogenous source of variation for X or Y . We raise a problem for this approach. Specifically, we point out that there are cases where an exogenous cause of X (E_x) has no probabilistic influence on Y no matter the direction of causation — namely, cases where E_x → X → Y and E_x → X ← Y are probabilistically indistinguishable. We then assess the philosophical significance of this problem and discuss some potential solutions.

The Archimedean Point: Polycentric AI and the Problem of Knowledge (html, 1957 words)

Very short summary: I discuss Cass Sunstein’s recent article on the “AI calculation debate.” I agree with Sunstein that an omniscient AI is impossible, but I nonetheless argue that a “society of AIs” with a division of cognitive labor would probably be better at tackling the knowledge problem than humans. …

Articles and blog posts found on 23 April 2025

2025-04-23T23:59:00Z

Chase Norman, Jeremy Avigad: Canonical for Automated Theorem Proving in Lean (pdf, 10076 words)

Canonical is a solver for type inhabitation in dependent type theory, that is, the problem of producing a term of a given type. We present a Lean tactic which invokes Canonical to generate proof terms and synthesize programs. The tactic supports higher-order and dependently-typed goals, structural recursion over indexed inductive types, and definitional equality. Canonical finds proofs for 84% of Natural Number Game problems in 51 seconds total.

Jonathan Hill, David S. Oderberg, Christopher Austin, François Cinotti, Ingo Bojak, Jonathan M. Gibbins: Mistakes in Action: On Clarifying the Phenomenon of Goal-Directedness (pdf, 11255 words)

Common sense tells us that biological systems are goal-directed, and yet the concept remains philosophically problematic. We propose a novel characterization of goal-directed activities as a basis for hypothesizing about and investigating explanatory mechanisms. We focus on survival goals such as providing adequate nutrition to body tissues, highlighting two key features—normativity and action. These are closely linked inasmuch as goal-directed actions must meet normative requirements such as that they occur when required and not at other times. We illustrate how goal-directed actions are initiated and terminated not by environmental features and goals themselves, but by markers for them. For example, timely blood clotting is the essential response to injury, but platelet activation, required for clotting, is initiated not by the injury itself but by a short sequence of amino acids (GPO) that provides a reliable marker for it. We then make the case that the operation of markers is a prerequisite for common biological phenomena such as mistake-proneness and mimicry. We go on to identify properties of markers in general, including those that are genetically determined and those that can be acquired through associative learning. Both provide the basis for matching actions to changing environments and hence adaptive goal-directedness. We describe how goal-directed activities such as bird nest construction and birdsong learning, completed in anticipation of actions in the environment, have to be evaluated and practiced against a standard of correctness. This characterization of goal-directedness is sufficiently detailed to provide a basis for the scientific study of mechanisms.

Markus Werning, Kristina Liefke: Reference in memories from perceptual and non-perceptual experiences: a non-disjunctivist account including vicarious, oneiric and fictional remembering (pdf, 13746 words)

The paper argues for a non-disjunctivist account of reference in episodic memory. Our account provides a uniform theory of reference for episodic memories that root in veridical and non-veridical experiences. It is independent from the particular mechanisms that subserve the respective source experiences. We reject both relationalist and intentionalist analyses of memory and build our approach on Werning and Liefke’s theory of referential parasitism and Werning’s theory of trace minimalism. The motivation for our non-disjunctivist account is the assumption that perceptual and non-perceptual memories with an episodic character share a uniform underlying causal mechanism and thus make up one and the same natural kind.

Sam Clarke, Francesca Luzzi, Elizabeth Brannon: Children’s number judgments are influenced by connectedness (pdf, 6761 words)

Visual illusions provide a means of investigating the rules and principles through which approximate number representations are formed. Here, we investigated the developmental trajectory of an important numerical illusion – the connectedness illusion, wherein connecting pairs of items with thin lines reduces perceived number without altering continuous attributes of the collections. We found that children as young as 5 years of age showed susceptibility to the illusion and that the magnitude of the effect increased into adulthood. Moreover, individuals with greater numerical acuity exhibited stronger connectedness illusions after controlling for age. Overall, these results suggest the approximate number system expects to enumerate over bounded wholes and doing so is a signature of its optimal functioning.

Alexander Pruss's Blog: Causal Robinson Arithmetic (html, 187 words)

Say that a structure N that has a distinguished element 0, a unary function S, and binary operations + and ⋅ is a causal Robinson Arithmetic (CRA) structure iff: The structure N satisfies the axioms of Robinson Arithmetic, and For all objects x and y in N, x is a partial cause of the object x + Sy. …

Alexander Pruss's Blog: Sensory-based hacking and consent (html, 491 words)

Suppose human beings are deterministic systems. Then quite likely there are many cases where the complex play of associations combined with a specific sensory input deterministically results in a behavior in a way where the connection to the input doesn’t make rational sense. …

Bet On It: Tough Luck on Trade (html, 466 words)

Suppose the U.S. Constitution mandated unilateral free trade with no exceptions. Much could go wrong. A pessimist could fairly ask all of the following: What if other countries take advantage of our unilateralism to drastically raise their tariffs? …

Articles and blog posts found on 22 April 2025

2025-04-22T23:59:00Z

Garry Hagberg: Wittgenstein’s Aesthetics (html, 15192 words)

Given the extreme importance that Wittgenstein attached to the aesthetic dimension of life, it is in one sense surprising that he wrote so little on the subject. It is true that we have the notes assembled from his lectures on aesthetics given to a small group of students in private rooms in Cambridge in the summer of 1938 (Wittgenstein 1966, henceforth LA) and we have G. E. Moore’s record of some of Wittgenstein’s lectures in the period 1930–33 (Moore 1972). Of Wittgenstein’s own writings, we find remarks on literature, poetry, architecture, the visual arts, and especially music and the philosophy of culture more broadly scattered throughout his writings on the philosophies of language, mind, mathematics, and philosophical method, as well as in his more personal notebooks; a number of these are collected in Culture and Value (Wittgenstein 1980a).

Gregory Wheeler: Function-Coherent Gambles with Non-Additive Sequential Dynamics (pdf, 6525 words)

The desirable gambles framework provides a rigorous foundation for imprecise probability theory but relies heavily on linear utility via its coherence axioms. In our related work, we introduced function-coherent gambles to accommodate nonlinear utility. However, when repeated gambles are played over time—especially in intertemporal choice where rewards compound multiplicatively— the standard additive combination axiom fails to capture the appropriate long-run evaluation. In this paper we extend the framework by relaxing the additive combination axiom and introducing a nonlinear combination operator that effectively aggregates repeated gambles in the log-domain. This operator preserves the time-average (geometric) growth rate and addresses the ergodicity problem. We prove the key algebraic properties of the operator, discuss its impact on coherence, risk assessment, and representation, and provide a series of illustrative examples. Our approach bridges the gap between expectation values and time averages and unifies normative theory with empirically observed non-stationary reward dynamics. Keywords. Desirability, non-linear utility, ergodicity, intertemporal choice, non-additive dynamics, function-coherent gambles, risk measures.

Sam Cowling, Daniel Giberman: Nominalism in Metaphysics (html, 14288 words)

[Editor’s Note: The following new entry by Sam Cowling and Daniel Giberman replaces the former entry on this topic by the previous author.] Nominalism is an exclusionary thesis in ontology. It asserts that there are no entities of certain sorts. Precisely which entities it excludes depends on the relevant variety of nominalism, but nominalist theses typically deny the existence of universals or abstract entities. For those who accept nominalism, a central challenge in metaphysics is to make sense of phenomena that anti-nominalist theories explain via universals or abstract entities.

Alexander Pruss's Blog: We have systematic overdetermination in our movements (html, 271 words)

The causal exclusion argument requires us to deny that there is systematic overdetermination between mental and physical causes. But it is interesting to note that in the real world there is systematic overdetermination of physical movements. …

Articles and blog posts found on 21 April 2025

2025-04-21T23:59:00Z

Elisabetta Lalumera: Health Concepts in Medicine and the Role of Philosophy (pdf, 11959 words)

Philosophers interested in medicine and healthcare research should focus on the choice of health concepts. Conceptual choice is akin to conceptual engineering but, in addition to assessing whether a concept suits an objective, or offering a better one, it evaluates objectives, ranks them, and discusses stakeholders’ entitlement. To show the importance of choosing health concepts, I summarize the internal debate in medicine, showcasing definitions, constructs, and scales. To argue it is a philosophical task, I analyze the medical controversy over health as adaptation and self-management. I conclude with a to-do list of conceptual choice tasks, generalizable beyond medicine.

Kfir Eliaz, Ariel Rubinstein: Wasonian Persuasion (pdf, 9881 words)

A firm wishes to persuade a patient to take a drug by making either positive statements like “if you take our drug, you will be cured”, or negative statements like “anyone who was not cured did not take our drug”. Patients are neither Bayesian nor strategic: They use a decision procedure based on sampling past cases. We characterize the firm’s optimal statement, and analyze competition between firms making either positive statements about themselves or negative statements about their rivals. The model highlights that logically equivalent statements can differ in effectiveness and identifies circumstances favoring negative ads over positive ones.

Matthew Bennett: Moral Distress, Disempowerment, and Responsibility (pdf, 9967 words)

Since Andrew Jameton first introduced the concept of moral distress, a growing theoretical literature has attempted to identify its distinctive features. This theoretical work has overlooked a central feature of morally distressing situations: disempowerment. My aim is to correct this neglect by arguing for a new test for theories of moral distress. I call this the disempowerment requirement: a theory of moral distress ought to accommodate the disempowerment of morally distressing situations. I argue for the disempowerment requirement and illustrate how to apply it by showing that recent responsibility-based theories of moral distress fail to pass the test.

Alexander Pruss's Blog: More on God causing infinite regresses (html, 689 words)

In my previous two posts I focused on the difficulty of God creating an infinite causal regress of indeterministic causes as part of an argument from theism to causal finitism. In this post, I want to drop the indeterministic assumption. …

Alexander Pruss's Blog: God and chancy infinite causal regresses (html, 459 words)

Suppose that a dod is a critter that chancily, with probability 1/2, causes one offspring during its life. The lifespan of a dod is one year. Further, imagine that like Sith, there are only ever one or two dods at a time, because each dod dies not long after reproducing, and if there were two or more mature dods at once, they’d fight to the death. …

Bet On It: The Political Economy of Faith (html, 1282 words)

I wrote these words about 20 years ago. They seem especially apt these days. Leaders have been known to inspire blind faith. Michels (1962: 93) refers to "the belief so frequent among the people that their leaders belong to a higher order of humanity than themselves" evidenced by "the tone of veneration in which the idol's name is pronounced, the perfect docility with which the least of his signs is obeyed, and the indignation which is aroused by any critical attack on his personality." …